Technical drawing, also known as drafting, is the academic discipline of creating standardized Standardization or standardisation is the process of developing and agreeing upon technical standards. A standard is a document that establishes uniform engineering or technical specifications, criteria, methods, processes, or practices. Some standards are mandatory while others are voluntary. Voluntary standards are available if one chooses to technical Technology is a term referring to whatever can be said at any particular historical period, concerning the state of the art in the whole general field of practical know-how and tool use. It therefore encompasses all that can be said about arts, crafts, professions, applied sciences, and skills. By extension it can also refer to any systems or drawings Drawing is a visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, or various metals like silverpoint. An artist who practices or works in drawing may be by architects An architect is a person trained in the planning, design and oversight of the construction of buildings, and is licensed to practice architecture. To practice architecture means to offer or render services in connection with the design and construction of a building, or group of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings,, interior designers The interior design process follows a systematic and coordinated methodology, including research, analysis and integration of knowledge into the creative process, whereby the needs and resources of the client are satisfied to produce an interior space that fulfills the project goals, drafters Drafters prepare technical drawings and plans, which are used to build everything from manufactured products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft to structures such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipelines, design engineers Design engineer is a general term that covers multiple engineering disciplines including electrical, mechanical and civil engineering, architectural engineers in the U.S. and building engineers in the U.K, and related professionals. Standards and conventions for layout, line thickness, text size, symbols, view projections, descriptive geometry, dimensioning, and notation are used to create drawings that are ideally interpreted in only one way.

A person who does drafting is known as a drafter Drafters prepare technical drawings and plans, which are used to build everything from manufactured products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft to structures such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipelines. In some areas this person may be referred to as a drafting technician, draftsperson, or draughtsman. This person creates technical drawings which are a form of specialized graphic communication Graphic communication as the name suggests is communication through graphics and graphical aids. It is the process of creating, producing, and distributing material incorporating words and images to convey data, concepts, and emotions. A technical drawing differs from a common drawing by how it is interpreted. A common drawing can hold many purposes and meanings, while a technical drawing is intended to concisely and clearly communicate all needed specifications to transform an idea In the most narrow sense, an idea is just whatever is before the mind when one thinks. Very often, ideas are construed as representational images; i.e. images of some object. In other contexts, ideas are taken to be concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily appear as images. Many philosophers consider ideas to be a fundamental into physical form.[1]

Contents

Methods

Sketch A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. If in oil paint it is called an oil sketch. In general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Artist's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, for a government building.

Sketching

A sketch A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. If in oil paint it is called an oil sketch. In general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Artist's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, is a quickly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. In general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time consuming.

Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams A diagram is a two-dimensional geometric symbolic representation of information according to some visualization technique. Sometimes, the technique uses a three-dimensional visualization which is then projected onto the two-dimensional surface. The word graph is sometimes used as a synonym for diagram.[2] These sketches, like metaphors A metaphor is an analogy between two objects or ideas; the analogy is conveyed by the use of a metaphorical word in place of some other word. For example: "Her eyes were glistening jewels", are used by architects as a mean of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarize their complex patterns, hereby enhancing the design process.[2]

Manual or by instrument

A drafting table. Technical drawing instruments. Stencils for correct technical lettering.

The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drafting table A drawing board is, in its antique form, a kind of multipurpose desk which can be used for any kind of drawing, writing or impromptu sketching on a large sheet of paper or for reading a large format book or other oversized document or for drafting precise technical illustrations. The drawing table used to be a frequent companion to a pedestal desk. A sliding straightedge A straightedge is a tool with an edge free from curves, or straight, used for transcribing straight lines, or checking the straightness of lines. If it has equally spaced markings along its length it is usually called a ruler known as a T-square A T-square is a technical drawing instrument that is primarily used as a guide for drawing horizontal lines on a drafting table. It is used by draftsmen. It is also used to guide the triangle that draws vertical lines. Its name comes from the general shape of the instrument where the horizontal member of the T slides on the side of the drafting is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.

"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen A technical pen is a specialized instrument used by an engineer, architect, or draftsperson to make lines of constant width for architectural, engineering, or technical drawings. It has been also generally called "rapidograph", although that particular name has officially remained a proper name for a line of products made by German along the T-square's edge, but more typically the T-square is used as a tool to hold other devices such as set squares A set square or triangle is an object used in engineering and technical drawing, with the aim of providing a straightedge at a right angle or other particular planar angle to a baseline or triangles. In this case the drafter places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables (which have by now largely been replaced by CAD workstations) come equipped with a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.

In addition, the drafter uses several tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses A compass or pair of compasses is a technical drawing instrument that can be used for inscribing circles or arcs. As dividers, they can also be used as a tool to measure distances, in particular on maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting, navigation, and other purposes, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the French curve A French curve is a template made out of plastic, metal or wood composed of many different curves. It is used in manual drafting to draw smooth curves of varying radii, typically a piece of plastic with complex curves on it. A spline A spline or the more modern term flexible curve consists of a long strip fixed in position at a number of points that relaxes to form and hold a smooth curve passing through those points for the purpose of transferring that curve to another material is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves.

Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is, a lighting designer will typically draw from the USITT The United States Institute for Theatre Technology is a membership organization which aims to advance the skills and knowledge of theatre, entertainment and performing arts professionals involved in the areas of design, production and technology, and to generally promote their interests. To this end, the USITT mounts conferences and exhibitions, standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a drafter to create their own templates.

This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general drafting can be a time consuming process.

A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an application of the pantograph A pantograph is a mechanical linkage connected in a special manner based on parallelograms so that the movement of one specified point is an amplified version of the movement of another point. If a line drawing is traced by the first point, an enlarged (or miniaturized) copy will be drawn by a pen fixed to the other (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well.

In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order.

Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect—or even by shop personnel such as a machinist A machinist is a person who uses machine tools to make or modify parts, primarily metal parts, a process known as machining. This is accomplished by using machine tools to cut away excess material much as a woodcarver cuts away excess wood to produce his work. In addition to metal, the parts may be made of many other kinds of materials, such as—skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task and are always in demand to some level.

An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons.

Computer Aided Design

Main article: Computer Aided Design Computer-aided design is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD often must convey also symbolic information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to

Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of Computer Aided Design Computer-aided design is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD often must convey also symbolic information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to systems (CAD).

There are two types of Computer Aided Design Computer-aided design is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD often must convey also symbolic information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to systems (CAD) used for the production of technical drawings, two dimensions 2D computer graphics is the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models and by techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves ("2D") and three dimensions 3D computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often Cartesian) that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time viewing ("3D").

2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD AutoCAD is a CAD software application for 2D and 3D design and drafting. It was developed and sold by Autodesk, Inc. First released in December 1982, AutoCAD was one of the first CAD programs to run on personal computers, notably the IBM PC. At that time, most other CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or mini-computers which were connected to replace the paper drawing discipline. The lines, circles, arcs and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the drawing when producing first and third angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections and cross sections. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Where as in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch. The 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be modified saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft but provide no way to check the various components will fit together.

3D CAD systems such as Pro/ENGINEER Pro/ENGINEER is a parametric, integrated 3D CAD/CAM/CAE solution created by Parametric Technology Corporation . It was the first, parametric, feature-based, associative solid modeling software on the market. The application runs on Microsoft Windows, Linux and UNIX platforms, and provides solid modeling, assembly modelling and drafting, finite first produce the geometry of the part, the technical drawing comes from user defined views of the part. Any orthographic, projected and section views are created by the software. There is no scope for error in the production of these views. The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter of first or third angle projection, and displaying the relevant symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product. Buildings, Aircraft, ships and cars are modeled, assembled and checked in 3D before technical drawings are released for manufacture.

Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any discipline. The various disciplines; electical, electronic, pneumatic, fluidic, etc, have industry recognised symbols to represent common components.

BS and ISO produce standards to show recomended practices but it is up to individuals to produce the drawings. There is no definitive standard for layout or style. The only standard across engineering workshop drawings is in the creation of orthographic projections and cross section views.

Drafting can represent two dimensions 2D computer graphics is the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models and by techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves ("2D") and three dimensions 3D computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often Cartesian) that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time viewing ("3D") althought the representation itself is always created in 2D (cf. Architectural model An architectural model is a type of a scale model, tangible representation of a structure built to study aspects of an architectural design or to communicate design ideas to clients, committees, and the general public. Architectural models are a tool which may be used for show, presentation, fundraising, obtaining permits, and sale purposes). Drafting is the integral communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts Industrial Arts is an umbrella term originally conceived in the late 19th century to describe educational programs which featured fabrication of objects in wood and/or metal using a variety of hand, power, or machine tools. Many also cover topics such as small engine repair and automobile maintenance, and all programs usually cover technical sub-discipline that underlies all involved technical endeavors.

In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, the objects can be described by at least one view plus material thickness note, 2, 3 or as many views and sections that are required to show all features of object.

Applications for technical drawing

Architecture

Main article: Architectural drawing An architectural drawing or architect's drawing is a technical drawing of a building that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince clients of the merits of a design,

The art and design that goes into making buildings is known as architecture. To communicate all aspects of the design, detailed drawings are used. In this field, the term plan Plans are a set of two-dimensional diagrams or drawings used to describe a place or object, or to communicate building or fabrication instructions. Usually plans are drawn or printed on paper, but they can take the form of a digital file is often used when referring to the full section view of these drawings.[3] Architectural drawings describe and document an architect's design.[4]

Engineering drawing An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is created within the technical drawing discipline, and used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items of a Machine tool A machine tool is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by machining, which is the selective removal of metal. The term machine tool is usually reserved for tools that used a power source other than human movement, but they can be powered by people if appropriately set up. Many historians of part.

Engineering

Main article: Engineering drawing An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is created within the technical drawing discipline, and used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items See also: Mechanical engineering The field requires a solid understanding of core concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, and structural analysis. Mechanical engineers use these core principles along with tools like computer-aided engineering and product lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and

Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the Latin ingenerare, meaning "to create".[5] Because this could apply to everything that humans create, it is given a narrower definition in the context of technical drawing. Engineering drawings generally deal with mechanical engineered items, such as manufactured parts and equipment.

Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces In typography, a typeface is a set of one or more fonts, in one or more sizes, designed with stylistic unity, each comprising a coordinated set of glyphs. A typeface usually comprises an alphabet of letters, numerals, and punctuation marks; it may also include ideograms and symbols, or consist entirely of them, for example, mathematical or map- and line styles), size, etc.

Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.

Wright brothers The Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two Americans who are generally credited with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903. In the two years afterward, the brothers developed Patent drawing A patent application or patent may contain drawings, also called patent drawings, illustrating the invention, some of its embodiments , or the prior art. The drawings may be required by the law to be in a particular form, and the requirements may vary depending on the jurisdiction, 1908.

Patents

Main article: Patent drawing A patent application or patent may contain drawings, also called patent drawings, illustrating the invention, some of its embodiments , or the prior art. The drawings may be required by the law to be in a particular form, and the requirements may vary depending on the jurisdiction

The applicant for a patent A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a public disclosure of an invention will be required by law Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. Laws can shape or reflect politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets. Property law defines rights and to furnish a drawing Drawing is a visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, or various metals like silverpoint. An artist who practices or works in drawing may be of the invention whenever the nature of the case requires a drawing to understand the invention. This drawing must be filed with the application. This includes practically all inventions except compositions of matter or processes, but a drawing may also be useful in the case of many processes.[6]

The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on which the drawing is made, the type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the standards in detail is that the drawings are printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues, and the drawings must also be such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.[6]

Related fields

Illustration of a drum set.

Technical illustrations

Technical illustration is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer".[7]

The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer’s interest and understanding".[8]

According to Viola (2005) "illustrative techniques are often designed in a way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter".[7]

Cutaway drawing of a Nash 600.

A cutaway drawing is a technical illustration, in which surface elements a three-dimensional model are selectively removed, to make internal features visible, but without sacrificing the outer context entirely.

The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to "allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering".[9]

Technical drawings (the document)

Types of technical drawings

The two types of technical drawings are based on graphical projection.[1] This is used to create an image of a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface.

Two-dimensional representation

Two-dimensional representation uses orthographic projection to create an image where only two of the three dimensions of the object are seen.

Three-dimensional representation

In three-dimensional representation, also referred to as pictorials, all three dimensions, of the three dimensions of an object, are visible.

Views

Multiview

Main article: Multiview orthographic projection

Multiview is a type of orthographic projection. There are two conventions for using multiview, first-angle and third-angle. In both cases, the front or main side of the object is the same. First-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they land. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen will be drawn to the right of the front side. Third-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they are. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen is actually the left side of the object and will be drawn to the left of the front side

Section

While multiview relates to external surfaces of an object, section views show an imaginary plane cut through an object. This is often useful to show voids in an object.

Auxiliary

Auxiliary views utilize an additional projection plane other than the common planes in a multiview. Since the features of an object need to show the true shape and size of the object, the projection plane must be parallel to the object surface. Therefore, any surface that is not in line with the three major axis needs its own projection plane to show the features correctly.

Pattern

Patterns, sometimes called developments, show the size and shape of a flat piece of material needed for later bending or folding into a three dimensional shape.[10]

Gear pump exploded view.

Exploded

An exploded view drawing is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of assembly of the various parts.[6] It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated an equal distance away from their original locations.

An exploded view drawing (EVD) can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center is assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside normally get removed first.[11]

Standards and conventions

Basic drafting paper sizes

Size chart with ANSI sizes. Main article: Paper size
Drawing type "name" Dimensions (width X height) Drawing type "name" Dimensions (width X height)
A-size 8.5 by 11.0 inches 22 cm by 28 cm B-size 11.0 by 17.0 inches 28 cm by 43 cm
C-size 17.0 by 22.0 inches 43 cm by 56 cm D-size 22.0 by 34.0 inches 56 cm by 86 cm
E-size 34.0 by 44.0 inches 86 cm by 112 cm F-size 44.0 by 68.0 inches 112 cm by 173 cm
G-size 68.0 by 88.0 inches 173 cm by 224 cm H-size 88.0 by 136 inches 224 cm by 345 cm
The height of the previous drawing size becomes the width of the next size in the sequence. The width of the previous drawing size doubled becomes the height of the next size in the sequence.

Sets of technical drawings

Working drawings

Working drawings are the set of technical drawings used during the manufacturing phase of a product.[12] In architecture, these typically include civil drawings, architectural drawings, structural drawings, mechanical systems drawings, electrical drawings, and plumbing drawings.

Assembly drawings

Assembly drawings show how different parts go together, identify those parts by number, and have a parts list, often referred to as a bill of materials.[13]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Goetsch, David L; Chalk, William S; Nelson, John A (2000), Technical Drawing (4th ed.), Albany, NY: Delmar, ISBN 076680531X p. 3
  2. ^ a b Richard Boland and Fred Collopy (2004). Managing as designing. Stanford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0804746745, p.69.
  3. ^ Jefferis, Alan; Madsen, David (2005), Architectural Drafting and Design (5th ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1401867154
  4. ^ Goetsch et al. (2000) p. 792
  5. ^ Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1401842496 , p. 1-2
  6. ^ a b c United States Patent and Trademark Office (2005) General Information Concerning Patents § 1.84 Standards for drawings (Revised January 2005). Accessed 13 Feb 2009.
  7. ^ a b Ivan Viola and Meister E. Gröller (2005). "Smart Visibility in Visualization". In: Computational Aesthetics in Graphics, Visualization and Imaging. L. Neumann et al. (Ed.)
  8. ^ www.industriegrafik.com The Role of the Technical Illustrator in Industry webarticle, Last modified: Juni 15, 2002. Accessed 15 feb 2009.
  9. ^ J. Diepstraten, D. Weiskopf & T. Ertl (2003). "Interactive Cutaway Illustrations". in: Eurographics 2003. P. Brunet and D. Fellner (ed). Vol 22 (2003), Nr 3.
  10. ^ Goetsch et al. (2000), p. 341
  11. ^ Michael E. Brumbach, Jeffrey A. Clade (2003). Industrial Maintenance. Cengage Learning, 2003 ISBN 0766826953, p.65
  12. ^ Ralph W. Liebing (1999). Architectural working drawings. John Wiley and Sons, 1999. ISBN 0471348767.
  13. ^ Goetsch et al. (2000), p. 613

Further reading

External links

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