Fire is the rapid oxidation Redox describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. This can be either a simple redox process, such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide (CO2) or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar(C6H12O6) in the of a material in the chemical process of combustion Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame. Fuels of interest often include organic compounds in the gas, liquid or, releasing heat In physics and thermodynamics, heat is the process of energy transfer from one body or system to another due to thermal contact, which in turn is defined as an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to work performed on the body, light Light is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye . In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not, and various reaction products A product is a substance that forms as a result of a biological- or chemical reaction. While the end product of some chemical reactions may be the result of a relatively rapid reaction, nanoseconds to seconds, chemical equilibria in complex systems may require years or even centuries to be established. For example, equilibria in groundwater.^[1] Slower oxidative processes like rusting Rust is a general term for a series of iron oxides. Colloquially, the term is applied to red oxides, formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Yet, there are also other forms of rust, such as the result of the reaction of iron and chlorine in an environment deprived of oxygen, such as rebar used in or digestion In mammals, food enters the mouth, being chewed by teeth, with chemical processing beginning with chemicals in the saliva from the salivary glands. Then it travels down the esophagus into the stomach, where hydrochloric acid kills most contaminating microorganisms and begins mechanical break down of some food , and chemical alteration of some. The are not included by this definition.

The flame A flame is the visible (light-emitting) gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction (for example, combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction) taking place in a thin zone. If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous components, it can become a plasma is the visible portion of the fire and consists of glowing hot gases. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma In physics and chemistry, plasma is a gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. The presence of a non-negligible number of charge carriers makes the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. Plasma, therefore, has properties quite unlike those of solids, liquids, or gases and is.^[2] Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color Color or colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, green, blue and others. Color derives from the spectrum of light interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors. Color categories and physical specifications of color are also associated with objects, materials, of the flame and the fire's intensity The factor π is a result of the fact that intensity is defined to exclude the effect of reduced view factor at large values θ; note that the solid angle corresponding to a hemisphere is equal to 2π steradians might vary.

Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration Conflagration is an uncontrolled burning that threatens human life, health, property or ecology. A conflagration can be accidentally or intentionally created . Arson can be accomplished for the purpose of sabotage, diversion, and also can be the consequence of pyromania. During conflagration the property is destroyed by fire. Sometimes the, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame. Fuels of interest often include organic compounds in the gas, liquid or. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems across the globe. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Fire has been used by humans for cooking, generating heat, signaling, and propulsion purposes. The negative effects of fire include decreased water purity, increased soil erosion, an increase in atmospheric pollutants and an increased hazard to human life.^[3]

Physical properties

Chemistry

Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer In the above equation, the iron has an oxidation number of 0 before and 3+ after the reaction. For oxygen (O) the oxidation number began as 0 and decreased to 2−. These changes can be viewed as two "half-reactions" that occur concurrently: such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist that can replace oxygen), is exposed to a source of heat In physics and thermodynamics, heat is the process of energy transfer from one body or system to another due to thermal contact, which in turn is defined as an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to work performed on the body or ambient temperature above the flash point Flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a liquid's flashpoint requires an ignition source. This is not to be confused with the autoignition temperature, which requires no ignition source. At the flash point, the vapour may cease to burn when the source of for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the ingredients necessary for most fires. It has been replaced in the fire fighting and protection industry partially by the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst Catalysis is the change in rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of a substance called a catalyst. Unlike other reagents that participate in the chemical reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in multiple chemical transformations. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive, a substance that is not directly involved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.

Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.

Fire can be extinguished Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of fires. It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:

• turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;
• covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO₂;
• application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end), or
• application of a retardant chemical such as Halon While these are all considered to be human-made compounds, they may appear inadvertently via natural processes in the environment through the introduction of other non-natural industrial materials. An example is the creation of carbon tetrachloride in small quantities when carbon bearing materials are present in drinking water disinfected with to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.

In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry that deals with calculating the relation between the amounts of substances that take part in a balanced chemical reaction reaction or that combine to form a chemical compound. In a balanced chemical reaction, the relations among quantities of reactants and products typically form a ratio of whole numbers. For proportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non-reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.

Flame

A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible and infrared Infrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300 micrometres, which equates to a frequency range between approximately 1 and 430 THz light, the frequency spectrum The frequency spectrum of a time-domain signal is a representation of that signal in the frequency domain. The frequency spectrum can be generated via a Fourier transform of the signal, and the resulting values are usually presented as amplitude and phase, both plotted versus frequency of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter Organic matter is matter that has come from a once-living organism; is capable of decay, or the product of decay; or is composed of organic compounds. The definition of organic matter varies upon the subject it is being used for, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame. Fuels of interest often include organic compounds in the gas, liquid or of gas, incandescent Incandescence is the emission of light from a hot body due to its temperature. The term derives from the verb incandesce, to glow white solid particles called soot Soot is a general term that refers to impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolyzed fuel particles such as cenospheres, charred wood, petroleum coke, etc. that may become produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its burning in chlorine Chlorine (pronounced /ˈklɔəriːn/ KLOR-een, from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' , is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17 (formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb). As the chloride ion, which is part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride The compound hydrogen chloride has the formula H (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, are fluorine Fluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9, represented by the symbol F. Fluorine forms a single bond with itself in elemental form, resulting in the diatomic F2 molecule. F2 is a supremely reactive, poisonous, pale, yellowish brown gas. Elemental fluorine is the most chemically reactive and electronegative of all the elements. For and hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its, and hydrazine Hydrazine is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula N2H4. It is a colourless liquid with an ammonia-like odor and is derived from the same industrial chemistry processes that manufacture ammonia. However, hydrazine has physical properties that are more similar to those of water and nitrogen tetroxide Dinitrogen tetroxide is the chemical compound N2O4. It forms an equilibrium mixture with nitrogen dioxide; some call this mixture dinitrogen tetroxide, some call it nitrogen dioxide. Dinitrogen tetroxide is a powerful oxidizer, highly toxic and corrosive. N2O4 is hypergolic with various forms of hydrazine, i.e., they burn on contact without a.

The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation In physics, a black body is an idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation falling on it. Blackbodies absorb and incandescently re-emit radiation in a characteristic, continuous spectrum. Because no light is reflected or transmitted, the object appears black when it is cold. However, a black body emits a temperature-dependent is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon In physics, a photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic interaction and the basic unit of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is also the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. The effects of this force are easily observable at both the microscopic and macroscopic level, because the photon emission by de-excited atoms The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons . The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain and molecules A molecule is defined as an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by very strong chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from polyatomic ions in this strict sense. In organic chemistry and biochemistry, the term molecule is used less strictly and also is applied to charged organic molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared Infrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300 micrometres, which equates to a frequency range between approximately 1 and 430 THz bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra The emission spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the relative intensity of each frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the element's atoms or the compound's molecules when they are returned to a ground state. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's civilian space program. NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on (NASA) of the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language has recently found that gravity Gravitation, or gravity, is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature , in which objects with mass attract one another. In everyday life, gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, thus accounting for also plays a role in flame formation. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types.^[4] The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection Convection is the movement of molecules within fluids . It cannot take place in solids, since neither bulk current flows or significant diffusion can take place in solids, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In micro gravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO₂ from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.^[5] Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.^[6] These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.

In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.

Heat

Fires give off heat, or the process of energy transfer from one body or system due to thermal contact.

Typical temperatures of fires and flames

• Oxyhydrogen flame: 2000 °C or above (3645 °F)^[7]
• Bunsen burner flame: 1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,372 to 2,912 °F)^[8]
• Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2,370 °F)^[9]
• Candle flame: 1,000 °C (1,830 °F)
• Smoldering cigarette:
  • Temperature without drawing: side of the lit portion; 400 °C (752 °F); middle of the lit portion: 585 °C (1,085 °F)
  • Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit portion: 700 °C (1,292 °F)
  • Always hotter in the middle.

Temperatures of flames by appearance

The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:^[10]

• Red
  • Just visible: 525 °C (977 °F)
  • Dull: 700 °C (1,292 °F)
  • Cherry, dull: 800 °C (1,470 °F)
  • Cherry, full: 900 °C (1,650 °F)
  • Cherry, clear: 1,000 °C (1,830 °F)
• Orange
  • Deep: 1,100 °C (2,010 °F)
  • Clear: 1,200 °C (2,190 °F)
• White
  • Whitish: 1,300 °C (2,370 °F)
  • Bright: 1,400 °C (2,550 °F)
  • Dazzling: 1,500 °C (2,730 °F)

Fossil record

The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, 470 million years ago,^[11] permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire. Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, 420 million years ago, by fossils of charcoalified plants.^[12] Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since.^[12] The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire.^[13] Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around 6 to 7 million years ago;^[14] this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire.^[13] These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.^[13]

Human control

The ability to control fire was a dramatic change in the habits of early humans. Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for people to cook food, increasing the variety and availability of nutrients. The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Evidence of cooked food is found from 1.9 million years ago, although fire was probably not used in a controlled fashion until 400,000 years ago.^[13] Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance to air pollution started to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time.^[13] The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, with it being used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from 'tens of thousands' of years ago.^[13]

Fire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced by death by burning as well as torture devices such as the iron boot which could be filled with water, oil, or even lead and then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer.

By the Neolithic Revolution,^{[citation needed]} during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool fires",^{[citation needed]} as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires" which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and autumn. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.

There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.

The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Hunter-gatherer groups around the world have been noted^{[citation needed]} as using grass and forest fires to injure their enemies and destroy their ability to find food, so it can be assumed that fire has been used in warfare for as long as humans have had the knowledge to control it^{[citation needed]}. Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons. Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek commandos who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. In the First World War, the first modern flamethrowers were used by infantry, and were successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War. In the latter war, incendiary bombs were used by Axis and Allies alike, notably on Tokyo, Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and, notoriously, at Dresden, in the latter two cases firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city^{[citation needed]} was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses. The use of napalm was employed in July 1944, towards the end of the Second World War;^[16] although its use did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War.^[16] Molotov cocktails were also used.

Use as fuel

Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel, and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources.^[17] The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity. Fire is also used to provide mechanical work directly, in both external and internal combustion engines.

The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called clinker if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting point is above the flame temperature.

Protection and prevention

Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.

Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires.^[18] Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a crime in most jurisdictions.

Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.

See also

• Áed (given name)
• Colored fire
• Combustion
• Deflagration
• Fire (classical element)
• Fire investigation
• Fire lookout (tower)
• Fire pit
• Fire whirl
• Fire worship
• Flame test
• Life Safety Code
• List of historic fires
• List of light sources
• Phlogiston theory
• Pyranoscope
• Pyrokinesis
• Pyrolysis
• Pyromania
• Smoke
• Volcano

References

1. ^ Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology. National Wildfire Coordinating Group. November 2009. http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/glossary/pms205.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-18
2. ^ Helmenstine, Anne Marie. "What is the State of Matter of Fire or Flame? Is it a Liquid, Solid, or Gas?". About.com. http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryfaqs/f/firechemistry.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-21
3. ^ Lentile, et al., 319
4. ^ Spiral flames in microgravity, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000.
5. ^ CFM-1 experiment results, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.
6. ^ LSP-1 experiment results, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.
7. ^ ""Flame Temperature Measurement"". http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PFLDAS000009000008001577000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes.
8. ^ ""Flame Temperatures"". http://www.derose.net/steve/resources/engtables/flametemp.html.
9. ^ ""Pyropen Cordless Soldering Irons"" (PDF). http://www.cooperhandtools.com/europe/sales_literature/documents/WellerPyropen_GB.pdf.
10. ^ "A Book of Steam for Engineers", The Stirling Company, 1905
11. ^ Wellman CH, Gray J. The microfossil record of early land plants. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2000;355(1398):717–31; discussion 731–2. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612. PMID 10905606.
12. ^ ^{a b} Scott, Andrew C.; Glasspool, Ian J.. The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) USA. 2006;103(29):10861-10865. PMID 1544139.
13. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Bowman DM, Balch JK, Artaxo P et al. Fire in the Earth system. Science. 2009;324(5926):481–4. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038.
14. ^ Retallack GJ. Neogene expansion of the North American prairie. PALAIOS. 1997;12(4):380–90. doi:10.2307/3515337.
15. ^ "In Pictures: German destruction". BBC News.
16. ^ ^{a b} "Napalm". GlobalSecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/napalm.htm. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
17. ^ ""Share of Total Primary Energy Supply", 2002; International Energy Agency". http://www.iea.org/statlist/index.htm.
18. ^ Fire & Life Safety Education, Manitoba Office of the Fire Commissioner
19. ^ "WHO Disease and injury country estimates". World Health Organization. 2009. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html. Retrieved Nov. 11, 2009.

Bibliography

• Karki, Sameer (2002) (PDF). Community Involvement in and Management of Forest Fires in South East Asia. Project FireFight South East Asia. http://www.asiaforests.org/doc/resources/fire/pffsea/Report_Community.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-13
• Haung, Kai. 2009. Population and Building Factors That Impact Residential Fire Rates in Large U.S. Cities. Applied Research Project. Texas State University. TXstate.edu
• Lentile, Leigh B.; Holden, Zachary A.; Smith, Alistair M. S.; Falkowski, Michael J.; Hudak, Andrew T.; Morgan, Penelope; Lewis, Sarah A.; Gessler, Paul E.; Benson, Nate C.. Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire characteristics and post-fire effects. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 2006;3(15):319-­345.

External links

• How Fire Works at HowStuffWorks
• What exactly is fire? from The Straight Dope
• On Fire, an Adobe Flash-based science tutorial from the NOVA (TV series)
• Early human fire mastery revealed BBC article on archaeological discoveries
• Flames in microgravity
• Spiral flames in microgravity
• moebuildingcontrol.co.uk - UK Guidance on fire safety codes and fire engineering
• Smokey Bear - Prevent Wildfires
• Fun Uses with Fire with a Rubens' Tube
• The National Fire Service Resource Guide: An encyclopedia of the fire industry

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